Academic Papers

      Spirituality and Healing    

                          BA Capstone Thesis Paper                       
A.J. Barba

Lourdes University

Abstract

            The purpose of this paper is to explore the implementation of training in moral philosophy to school-age children and the social effect that it applies to business ethics in particular. The differences and similarities between philosophy, ethics, and business ethics will be explained in- depth. This paper will also explore the benefits and the objections to philosophical training as well as various misconceptions about what that instruction would consist of. There are various perspectives as to the meaning of ethics that will be discussed, along with different approaches to learning styles which enable children to respond well to the wisdom found in moral philosophy. It was discovered that philosophical training has been in effect for over two thousand years; only to be withdrawn from the educational system after the Civil War. There seems to be a correlation with elitism in education and a separation between the privileged and the working class. This study will further show that the youth who are raised with ethical training are better prepared for the business world in which ethics are enforced. The purpose of this paper is to argue that teaching philosophy and ethics as a standard course in public schools will change our society and the future of business ethics with each generation improving upon itself. As with all long term studies, there are limitations to the accuracy of this research which cannot be resolved in time for the purposes defined in this paper. This study was a compilation of one researcher's course studies while in post-secondary school for the purpose of a Bachelors of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies thesis paper at Lourdes University.  

Philosophy: Building Character and Our Future

            It is all too common of an image that we conjure up when thoughts about the topic of philosophy fill our minds- old wise men discussing and debating over idealism, existentialism, and realism. In our western culture, we have accepted the idea that there is an hierarchy of subjects that get included in our education curriculum (Morris & Pai, 1976). Even though ideas and thoughts envelope everything in our lives, we are fixed on the belief that learning about our ideals and the diversity of thoughts within each human being is somehow for higher learning or only for intellectual minds. Quite possibly this very idea is what is blocking our acceptance of philosophy and ethics being taught as a staple of our modern education. One has to wonder what is missing from our lives, when we blot out the great minds throughout history as a mere elite education and not as a foundation of it. Now more than ever, we are inundated with global diversity and different cultures and it is essential for us to know how to get along well with others and treat one another as an end, rather than merely a means to an end. That concept is not only vital for achieving a civilized society but especially important in the world of business where we are in constant contact with different people who have various ethics and schools of thought. For the future of American society, the homeland of immigrants, our children should be taught this from an early age so that they can function better in an ever expanding reality. As Plato once stated, “We have certain dogmata concerning justice and good in which we were reared from childhood”. So the question remains, “Would teaching philosophy and ethics as a standard course in public schools change our society and the future of business ethics?”

            To understand the impact on a society when introducing the teaching of ethics and philosophy it is imperative that there is some discussion as to the differences as well as comprehension of the comparative issues in both of these studies. To begin with, philosophy is defined by the American Heritage Dictionary as "the love and pursuit of wisdom", "the critical analysis of fundamental assumptions or beliefs", and also "investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values, based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods" (p. 1045, 2010). However, there are three main branches to the philosophical tree: namely, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, and metaphysical philosophy. Philosophy is said to answer two great questions, mainly "what is there?" and "what matters in what there is?" (Hand, forward, 2009). These questions further engage the student to "more specific questions about knowledge, truth, reason, value, the mind and more" (Hand, 2009). There are numerous philosophical categories, such as Western Philosophy, Eastern Philosophy, Moral and Political philosophy, applied philosophy, as well as various theories.

            The subject of ethics is one of the main branches of philosophy that is commonly referred to as Moral Philosophy. These basic concepts of right or wrong and good or evil are explored in great detail in the study of ethics. This branch of philosophy can also be broken down into various subtopics that further probe into the study of ethics, they are: "the study of goodness, the general study of right action, applied ethics, metaethics, moral psychology, and the metaphysics of moral responsibility" (Audi, p. 244, 1995). These subtopics will be explained further for clarification, but for now it is important to note the difference between morality and ethics.

            Morality and ethics are sometimes used interchangeably; however, there are some differences that need to be mentioned. Ethics refer to a social system of standards of conduct, whereas, morals refer to an individual's character. At this point, some individuals will opt out of the discussion since the word "morality" has an aspect of relativism in which cannot be discarded. Nevertheless, there is a moral sense in humanity that has accepted universal aspects of morality, whether realized or not, that is true, pure, and good. It is in that realm of moral philosophy in which this paper is written and strives for educational excellence in the instruction of ethics. "The general study of goodness and the general study of right action` n, constitute the main business of ethics" (Audi, p. 244, 1995). Also, there are several misconceptions that should be resolved before going any further in this discussion. To begin with, the "study of goodness" has falsely been thought of as merely being delegated to the religious sector by many who are unaware of the study of ethics. To demonstrate, one only has to look to the business environment where there are morality issues that are enforced and accepted without ever crying out the topic of religion; such as found in GAAP- generally accepted accounting principles, internal controls, professional oaths, and background checks to ensure high morality among employees. Also, the very idea of government teaching morality to its citizens would upset the freedom that America stands by. Therefore, it should be established for the purpose of this paper that teaching philosophy and ethics in a classroom would only equip citizens with a greater ability to process critical thinking and obviously not to inculcate propaganda into the minds of children; an idea which is not only illegal, but unethical. Albeit, the United States does enforce certain illegal consequences to making inappropriate moral decisions; such as in the case of stealing, assaulting, lying under oath, driving while intoxicated, and more. These moral conclusions that all humans must make at some time or another are discussed in great lengths in the field of ethics. The good brought about by good ethical decisions can be an autonomous choice in which can only be encouraged by ethical training and not something that is enforced upon the individual's life. However, the teaching of moral philosophy or ethics goes well beyond the superficial skin of morality and questions not only what it means to be good, but "what is a good life" and "what is good".

            This study of "the good" will lead the student into discussions about happiness, well- being, and ultimately to intrinsic value (Audi, p. 245, 1995). Even though there are as many different ways of thinking on a topic as there are philosophers, it is still beneficial for students to mature with knowledge of these various beliefs. For instance, Plato believed that good is achieved through harmony, with all citizens working together for the good of the state. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill believed that happiness was the equivalent of doing the "greatest amount of good for the greatest amount of people". Epicurus believed that pleasures brought about happiness. Whereas, Aristotle believed that true happiness can only come from having a virtuous life and that "good" is "that which all things aim", therefore, every sort of end objective is seen as the pursuit of good.

            Granted, not all philosophical schools of thought are ones that can be or should be endorsed by all in a society. It would be naive to think that one argument is more valid from another in every circumstance or that one way is preferred for a better world. This is what is found at the core of tyranny and communism in which history has proven that rebellion, dissatisfaction, and ultimately war result from implementing these approaches. Rather, the intention of teaching philosophy to others is to develop critical thinking skills and not to propagandize the beliefs of the instructor, government officials, or otherwise. For the purpose of this paper, it is assumed that the instructors would be following an ethical code of conduct by allowing the students to ask and answer questions, and use guided investigation as a tool to define philosophical conclusions.

            To clarify, there is no doubt that the educational system, along with the various political figures in charge of selecting the current subjects being taught and to whom they are taught, are trying to make the best possible choices for American citizens. However, when philosophy was taken out of the curriculum it affected the poor and underprivileged in ways that were unforeseen. However, a study of the history of the world and the American school curriculum will help clarify the gradual downgrade of subjects used within modern schools today.  

To begin with, this dilemma concerning American public education is nothing new. The standard curriculum today has changed throughout the centuries in what used to include a set of courses that were not only practical in nature, but also included religious courses which taught ethics and etiquette and gradually evolved to what it is in our modern day. The concept of the foundations to education has been a topic of debate for thousands of years; dating back to Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. The knowledge taught in schools was for the purpose of training free men in America during the eighteenth to mid- nineteenth century. This is a key point that will be discussed further later on in this thesis, but for now, it is essential and rudimentary that the elementary components of this established curriculum be understood prior to additional scrutiny.

            The discipline in which free men were taught is frequently referred to as artes liberales; a Latin term from the Medieval times meaning, artes- "subjects of study" and liberales- "proper to free persons". It should be noted that even though the Greeks influenced this program of study in the enkuklios paideia or "education in a circle", it wasn't clearly defined until Roman times (Kimball, p.206, 1986). Regardless, this curriculum has been used since the 1st century B.C. until the time of the American Civil War, or late 1800’s. Artes liberales is traditionally categorized into two groups. The Trivium, the elementary of the two groups, consists of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Whereas arithmetic, astronomy/astrology, music, and geometry make up the second group of refined learning called the Quadrivium.

            These Greek lessons, which later became Roman, were then again later embraced by the Christians to help further their studies in the Scriptures. In fact, "the Christian and Western conception of the contemplative life is closely linked to the Aristotelian notion of leisure"; which is said to be the difference between liberal arts and servile work (Rieff, p. 292, 1977). Around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the seven liberal arts subjects began to change again from their original format. Grammar was reduced to mere linguistic analysis by being "stripped of its association with the literary tradition" (Kimball). Whereas, logic expanded from being a subject about the "art of thinking" to an "analytical tool" able to be used in all subjects. Rhetoric, or public speaking, morphed from a communicative art form to a mechanical discipline. The quadrivium, which was discussed in The Republic, considered the study of arithmetic, music, astronomy and geometry to be the study of how they are all related to one another. The modern approach to this theory is that arithmetic is pure number, astronomy was moving numbers in space and time, music was applied numbers in relation to time, and geometry is the study of stationary numbers in relation to a space. These two very important stages in an individual’s education were used to prepare themselves for philosophy and later specialization in their profession. Nevertheless, the changes that have occurred before the nineteenth century have been minimal in comparison to what was to come in the field of education and philosophy.

            With the rise of scientific discoveries during the late 1800's, came the birth of science teaching the fine and noble things of life and the diminished desire to teach classical subjects. Also, since the definition of a "free man" changed shortly after the civil war so did the free man's curriculum. What followed was an omission of the subject of philosophy from the public schools starting first in the southern states with the remaining northern states diminishing thereafter in the course. Regrettably, this alienated previous slaves from the opportunity to discover the "higher learning" found in the wisdom of philosophy. Ironically, the philosopher Epictetus stated these poignant words, "Only the educated are free". Also during this time period, the scientific community reasoned that education should be based on truth and rightfully so. Unfortunately due to the aspect of relativism in philosophy, the unforeseen side effect of this new found scientific knowledge was the diminishing and eventually removal of the subject all together. Around this same time period, the idea of teaching ethics became lumped in the same category as religion and therefore lost its standing in the public arena. Also, the Industrial Revolution brought about a change in thinking about the practicality of such education and whether it was essential for the sustenance of the average individual. On the other hand, American colleges along with the American Philosophical Society were recruiting “primarily gentlemen...whom Providence hath blessed with affluence, and whose understanding is improved by a liberal education” (Kimball, p. 188, 1986). This elitism, which characterizes the American educational curriculum today, has further stretched the spectrum between the privileged and the disenfranchised. Unfortunately, this change meant that a child's education today can no longer be considered an egalitarian education, in which all of society is armored with the lessons of moral and philosophical wisdom.

            There were those who spoke out for the importance of philosophy and a moral education. Mark Van Doren, an America Pulitzer Prize winning poet and writer, held the belief that the importance of a moral education resides with the intellect (Kimball, p. 198, 1986). Jacques Maritain, a Thomistic philosopher, said that the highest aim in educating youth is to “possess the fountains of wisdom” and that education serves “not to shape the will and directly to develop moral virtues in the youth, but to enlighten and strengthen reason” (Kimball, 1986). Limiting children in this way, not only cuts them off from knowledge they may have learned, but it makes this wisdom endangered to extinction for the following generations. For children to flourish they must be exposed to the subjects of philosophy and ethics at an early age so that can more readily analyze, solve problems, make the best decisions, and communicate those decisions in a clear manner. Depriving children from the lessons of philosophy is comparable to silencing all of the grandparents in this world. In teaching students to reason and have independent thinking, it gives them the freedom to make better decisions and to be equipped with better problem solving skills. It teaches the whole student, rather than in fragments. If students are not equipped with philosophical and ethical training, they cannot be expected to make good ethical decisions. As world citizens, the need to encourage and nurture the youth towards making good ethical decisions is imperative. Ovid, a Roman poet, phrased the matter this way when he said, "Note too that a faithful study of the liberal arts humanizes character and permits it not to be cruel" (Ex Ponto, II, ix, 47).

            When children are subjected to ethical discussions it allows them the opportunity to probe deeper into questioning and accept that there may be numerous answers or even none at all. By engaging in this type of learning, it teaches the student that there is rarely an easy, quick answer and it allows them the opportunity to explore various avenues of discovery. This skill is able to transfer to other aspects in the student’s education as well as decision making skills outside of the classroom. This childhood instruction is what lays the groundwork for an ethical society and is the foundation stone for developing the skills needed later in life to think things through in order to make ethical business transactions, responsible environmental decisions, and in averting criminal behavior.

            Other life skills are also improved upon by the child's expanse in knowledge, such as being a good public speaker and negotiator. Whether it is the child's intent for its future to be in business or politics or some other industry is not necessary for developing these skills that will help them in all areas of life. Being able to evaluate the right decision is paramount to knowing everything from math, to salary negotiations, to not succumbing to peer pressure, to standing up against your boss if you are asked to do something unethical. For some, these skills are taught by parents at home who have realized the importance of moral philosophy and have instilled these skills in their children. However, in today's society many people come from one parent, grandparent, guardian, or even broken homes which are either not equipped with the skills to teach philosophy or simply do not have the time to guide the child's moral development. When a child is able to understand other human beings they are able to empathize with others and are far less likely to steal millions of dollars from them; such as in the case of Bernard  Madoff's infamous ponzi scheme.

            Ethics are all around us; they are found in various professional oaths, union contracts, discrimination laws, labor laws, just pricing, environmental protection laws, and accounting standards, to name just a few. Thankfully, adults are subjected to certain ethical laws and restrictions which offer the minimum guideline for determining what is right or wrong and the appropriate social response to injustice so that they can become a moral agent for change. Encountering ethical decisions is common place in society; yet, when it comes to teaching children at school about moral philosophy it is considered taboo in many homes across America. However, those same individuals will grow and mature without this education and then be expected to automatically know how to function as an adult in American society. This puts a great majority of young adults who are entering the workforce at a disadvantage by being thrown into a world where ethics are not only expected but enforced. One of the great philosophers, Immanuel Kant, "holds that one ought to perform right actions not because they will produce good results, but because it is our duty to do so" (Hoffman, p. 9, 1984). However, the final stage of moral development, considered the most difficult to achieve, is when an individual acts autonomously in accordance with an inner moral judgment. Aristotle stated, "I have gained this from philosophy: that I do without being commanded what others do only from fear of the law".

            For many people, copious amounts of hours are spent at work and therefore much of the ethical dilemmas that arise will be in a business setting; regardless of industry. That is why it is important to discuss this discipline of applied ethics, since this area will be greatly affected in years to come by the youth that are instructed in moral philosophy. Business ethics is lauded for attempting to put into practice economic justice, business decisions and responsibilities of businesses, and the rights and duties of employees, employers, the state, and consumers. The business ethics that are reflected for each time period seem to be whatever cultural norms dictate. Business ethics for today have evolved from these norms and conversely the culture has been formed in part by the current business philosophy. These standards set boundaries on what defines competency within professions and therefore the basis of such standards needs to be reviewed. L.T. Hosmer's book, The Ethics of Management, lists eight basic ethical concepts by which businesses examine:

·                     Economic outcome: Economic outcome can be measured in profits as well as other financial and societal impacts. Since the strengths and weaknesses of a society depend on a favorable economic outcome, therefore, it is essential that this area of business ethics be considered rudimentary when making business decisions.

·                     Eternal law: The philosopher, Thomas Aquinas, believed that all humans follow a God- given order or plan by which all humans adhere to regardless of culture, time, or circumstance. Natural law is how humans apply these "laws" to their everyday activities. The "Golden Rule", "doing unto others as you would want done to you" is part of the innate knowledge derived from "God-given laws" of order in which Thomas Aquinas was referring to.

·                     Legal requirements: Various professional boards, associations, and committees are a useful tool in determining appropriate legal requirements. However, they are not the end all when deciding which choice is the most ethical, since many laws in place could be seen as unethical by some individuals. Conversely, some laws that are not in effect do not necessarily mean that all ethical decisions are being made.

·                     Personal virtue: The “rational pursuit of excellence” can be taken in many different ways. This could be seen as a means to an individual’s pursuit of excellence as well as a means to the “good life” (Hosmer, p. 105, 2008). When deciding if something is open, honest, proud, or truthful it is left up to the individual to decide what their perception is of right or wrong actions. Therefore, this ethical concept is one in which the persons individual moral standards are entrusted in making this ethical decision.

·                     Utilitarian benefits: The outcome of an event is the key component in looking at the utilitarian benefit. Since the “greatest net benefit for society” is for the most part aesthetic, the greatest good for the greatest amount of people needs to be considered along with all of the positive and negative outcomes.

·                     Universal duty: A universal duty is about only doing duties or actions that we would be willing to see others do if they were in the same situation. Treating each person as an individual or as an end is another concept of having universal duty. The intentions of an individual are looked at over the outcome of the circumstance; since outcomes can be infinite. Immanuel Kant explained that everyone must act in the same way under the same circumstances for those actions to be considered “right”, “just”, and “fair” (Hosmer, p. 108).

·                     Distributive justice: Distributive justice deals with the distribution of goods to society and whether they are distributed in a fair, just, or ethical manner. If goods are allocated equally among all citizens, then that society is said to fall under this ethical concept. Discussions about what are just human rights arise from this concept and many sub-communities such as organized labor try to implement many of these principles.

·                     Contributive justice: Contributive justice deals more with what the individual contributes to society, unlike distributive justice. It is important for the functionality and well- being of a society, corporation, or organization to encourage individual's to use their talents and capabilities towards the good of humanity.

            These ethical concepts are the basis of business ethics and the principles of applying ethics to everyday life. This extensive study of ethical guidelines is found behind the curtain in businesses today. However, since the majority of adults are not taught these rudimentary ethical guidelines, employees are frequently left puzzled as to an employer’s expectations. This cultural gap between the employer and employee has resulted in disorganization, confrontation, and the worst case scenario- violence. Therefore, the importance in teaching American citizens about moral philosophy at an early age will be an investment towards better communication and inner critical thinking in the future.

            Learning about philosophy not only guides the student towards inner critical thinking, but it develops this ability to try and solve any moral conflicts the individual may encounter. With each ethical decision, the child gets more practice in developing this inner dialogue and the lessons are converted from theory to habit. That way when adults are confronted with ethical business decisions, they will have had the repetition during child's play to construct options and solutions for various dilemma’s encountered. Michael Morris, author of Evaluation Ethics for Best Practice, had this to say regarding managerial ethics, "We do not wait until we become evaluators to develop values that influence our behavior" (Morris, p. 199, 2008). These values that are taught in philosophy are like seeds that need to be watered and activated in childhood so that adults are equipped with the ability to flourish. Ethical training is essential for all members in society; big or small. Also, regardless of what economic status a person is born into or what current career position or title an individual holds, there is always room for more ethical training. "The truth of the matter is that all human relationships must be subjected to the guidance of moral principles" (Wirtenberger, p. 9, 1962). This is why many professional careers enforce yearly ethics training so that educated adults do not forget the skills they learned during ethics courses required in post-secondary schooling. The need for children to learn the wisdom found in philosophy is comparable for the need to teach children simple sentence structure in the hopes that one day theses, novels, and the like are written at a future date. With all of the benefits that are derived from the wisdom of philosophical studies it is difficult to imagine that there would be any opposition to the subject. However, there are many arguments that are a valid concern and therefore should be discussed.

            There are various reasons why people object to having philosophy and ethics taught in schools. For one, parents may be concerned that their beliefs will be subjected to scrutiny. However, scrutiny would only be applied to various philosophical systems and would not include different religious beliefs since the separation of church and state is enforced in the United States, therefore, that should not be of concern for parents. Although, it is important to mention that before truth is ever to be accepted, there needs to be a period of time to develop critical thinking as the child matures (Hand, p. xv, 2009). For instance, when a student goes to school they learn about several political systems, historical figures and the decisions made by them, and they are asked to form opinions. However, this open dialogue merely allows the student to express their ideas concerning the historical character's decisions to the whole classroom and does not in any way ask the student to abandon any political beliefs that are already established. Rather, through public declaration it instills in the child a sense of pride that they can define their ideas in a public setting. If the child is trained in philosophy and ethics at home, then that training will only add to the classroom discussions. Also, it moves the discussion from debate to dialogue when there is a mutual understanding among students.

            Another misconception about philosophy being taught in schools to children is that there is some concern as to whether or not an in-depth study of numerous philosophical beliefs will bring about relativism towards laws. Steven Law stated, "Relativism” is rooted in a retreat from, not an excess of, critical reasoning". The broad approach of possibilities is narrowed into every single decision made. The infant stage of every decision starts with all possibilities that begin to bottleneck, through the use of critical thinking, into one concisive decision. In today’s age of internet exploration and cable television, adults are bombarded with knowledge about various cultures, schools of thought, and political and business ethical decisions. Knowledge about different views expands our concept of others and helps us understand the differences amongst us. Whether it is a local difference amongst neighbors or an international business difference, the student will continually be subjected to various different cultures and will need to know the others philosophical and ethical background to be able to negotiate and get along well with others. Many crimes are due to not thinking things through between the many layers of cause and effect. If more people were given the skill to think through a situation and through all possible conclusions, more crimes would stop at the critical thinking level and thereby never become a crime. Moral autonomous reasoning is what develops from moral philosophy and can only be developed through questioning, communication, and practice; rather than a yes/no or right/wrong answer which relies heavily on the instructor being correct and the student searching outside themselves for decisions. Although some may argue that not all conclusions can have a definitive right or wrong answer, therefore, how can philosophy be "taught". However, this view of philosophy in "wondering whether a question has an answer were analogous to wondering whether a story has a moral or a song has a chorus" (Hand, p. 7, 2009).

            Another reason for philosophy and ethics being omitted from the classroom is the matter of economics. Robert M. Hutchins, president of University of Chicago in 1931, had this to say on the matter, “Our income tax goes now in part to keep our neighbors alive. It may have to go in part to make our neighbors intelligent” (Kimball, p. 180, 1986). Some people may think that the education system is already taxed enough, and rightfully so, and therefore struggling to pay for the programs already available is enough of a burden to the school systems. However, there are many ways that school districts can conserve on money. To begin with, schools can start conserving in small ways by reusing the backs of paper and using energy efficient bulbs. Also, remodeling jobs that are done purely for the purpose of aesthetics are unnecessary and cause an undo strain on an already troubled situation. One large way in which to cut costs would be to restructure the use of school district buildings; meaning that numerous school districts are spotted in nearly every small suburb of every county across America. However, if each county only operated out of one large school district building instead of hundreds of small buildings for each suburb it could save the education system millions of dollars every year. Regardless of what method is used to cut cost, the importance of this project will change our culture to think more creatively in finding solutions to problems in which the benefits are priceless. Plato once said, "There will be no end to the troubles of states, or of humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really and truly become philosophers, and political power and philosophy thus come into the same hands".

            Another one of the big arguments in teaching children philosophy is that it is too complex of a subject to be able for children to comprehend and therefore would be a waste of tax dollars. So to determine whether a child could understand philosophy it is important to discover how children learn, retain, and what methods can be used to accomplish such understanding.

            First of all, there are several learning styles and models to choose from, however, Neil Fleming came up with VAK/VARK learning styles theory, a model that is widely used and recognized in the education and business setting. Despite many other learning styles, VAK/VARK is about the preferences chosen by individuals regarding the input and output of information. Since many students are a combination of all of these methods it is important to touch on them for the purpose of showing how knowledge is obtained.

·                     Visual learners absorb information through pictures, diagrams, or other visual learning tools. While the small details of a lesson are being explained by the teacher, these students are better able to see the big picture of what is being taught. They learn by visual stimuli, such as taking graphic notes, highlighting, or closing one's eyes to visually see the answer.

·                     Auditory learners depend heavily on hearing a lesson being taught. These learners do well in a class room where speaking and listening is engaged. Some techniques used for teaching these students are discussion groups, oral directions, and recording class discussions to use later instead of notes.

·                     Kinesthetic/ Tactile learners have to physically do the work to be able to learn the skill. These students learn by using body movement and can therefore sometimes be percieved as restless. However, through using natural "discovery", experiments, and activities in the classroom, students are able to experience something through more than just watching and hearing it through another individual's experience.

This model was later revised to include the Reading/Writing learner as well which is the traditional school method of using textbooks and writing exams.  Since one cannot learn about philosophy simply by reading about it, it is imperative that all learning styles are used in order to accomplish progress. Despite the overwhelming use of this model, it was determined that students learn best from using a combination of all of Fleming's learning styles. Therefore, guided discussion using Smart boards, video, experiments, and even music can be used so that all students can learn this subject with ease. When studying philosophy in a classroom setting, it is not only essential that discussion is used for the auditory learner, but also that visual, kinesthetic, and reading be included in the curriculum; as it should be in any subject taught in school. The kinesthetic learner, as well as all pupils, will benefit from experience that stimulates development regardless whether it is moral or intellectual progression. Since development has to be experienced, it is essential that the child have positive experiences that can be improved upon by layering the lessons learned during each event in the child's life. Unfortunately, the employee who steals once will do so again because of what was learned as a child. Violent activities that were learned during youth, either through abuse or possibly cause and effect not being visually played out in order to naturally correct criminal behavior, is seen in a greater degree as an adult due to the layers of experience which "instructed" the individual's ethical system.

            Regardless of the method used to teach children, the value of ethics and the wisdom gained from learning moral philosophy is needed now more than ever. The United States spends twenty-two thousand dollars per year for every inmate in prison, while every pupil in American schools gets around ten thousand dollars per year (Fortunato) (IES, 2007). Through learning moral philosophy, regardless of the method used- visual, auditory, reading, or kinesthetic- the youth will be better equipped to make an informative decision that will not only be good for the rest of society but will lift up the individual with pride, respect for fellowman, and dignity. Due to the benefits from learning ethics, there is a great need for the masses to learn the skills taught in moral philosophy and not only for the elite few and post-secondary schools. The great philosopher Cicero stated, "moral prudence is a law, whose operation is to urge us to good actions, and restrain us from evil ones" (Stackhouse, p. 133, 1995). However, the lessons learned in philosophy will not simply ensure that rules are followed, but rather the need for enforcement later in life will be minimal and an understanding of this nation’s cultural diversity will encourage empathy and charity towards community. Also, as children grow and develop, new opportunities and experiences need to be introduced to them so that they have the capabilities to decide what area of expertise they wish to specialize in later as an adult. Introducing philosophy into contemporary education along with a child's general core requirements, which already are established in schools, would also prepare them for the critical thinking that is needed in institutes of higher education. 

            The American educational system as it is today is a far cry from egalitarian education. In this sense, philosophy was the first essential subject to be eliminated from schools. Over the past few years the list of subjects that are no longer found in some school districts has now grown to include physical education, art, and music. This action has tipped the scales of justice to where all American children are not getting an equal education and thereby not getting an equal opportunity later in life to succeed in business or society. Also, with children of this generation no longer learning philosophy or ethics in schools they automatically have a disadvantage from others who are taught this subject in private school or at home. Many are left only with the core subjects of reading/ literature, math, history/ government, and science. Beyond that, some children come home to an empty house with only the television, games, internet, music, and the telephone to teach them about cultural ethics. This "instruction" is inputting information and doesn't prepare the person to output good moral decisions. When cheating, stealing, and doing drugs are glamorized in drama it is no wonder why so many lives are ruined by applying these ethics to reality, thereby adding even more unnecessary tragedy to the world. After the parent finally comes home from a long day at work, they may ask the child how their day was, eat, and then go to bed starting the cycle all over again. It is a shame for any child to grow up without a mentor guiding them in ethics, however, when tens of thousands of children are growing up this way it is time to band together and provide some source of education in this matter. Society cannot expect ethical decisions to come out of demoralizing experiences that children visually see, hear, and finally kinesthetically mimic.

            What we think about, what we believe, influences what actions we take. Our sets of beliefs, or theories, are developed through an ever increasing desire to know the “why” in everything. In philosophy we are taught to not only examine thoughts and thinking styles as to why things happen but also examine why other individuals can have a completely opposing view, and yet be justified in thinking so. Philosophy opens the mind to new ideas that may or may not be better than what is already adopted; albeit enlightening just the same. It can simply be a way to verify beliefs or expose the community to new ideas that work better and add value. Through practice, beliefs are examined and tested to see if those theories are valid. “Since it is through a continuous course of criticism that we find our way to a higher order of activity- in running governments, in practicing medicine, in teaching the youth- it is imperative to address ourselves, sooner or later, to the matter of fundamental theory” (Morris & Pai, 1976). Dialogue with others innately stimulates self- reflection which can be drawn out of the student through further conversations and inner conflict gets resolved, which results in development (Hennessy, p. 17, 1979). Lawrence Kohlberg’s created the Stages of Moral Development which articulates how moral reasoning is developed over some time (Parsons, p. 54, 2004):
Level 1: The Pre- Conventional level
            Stage 1: to avoid punishment
            Stage 2: to serve your own needs
Level 2: The Conventional level
            Stage 3: to be a good person in your eyes and the eyes of others
            Stage 4: to fulfill duties to which you have agreed to keep the system running
Level 3: The Post- Conventional level

            Stage 5: to fulfill a social contract or do what has the highest degree of utility

            Stage 6: to follow self- chosen universal ethical principles

Kohlberg was concerned over schools creating a morality code that would be hidden from the public’s eye. He believed this "hidden curriculum" would become more like a penal institute in requiring strict obedience to authority and a feeling of being imprisoned (Hennessy, 1979). Rather than schools encouraging the growth of moral autonomy, they are enforcing moral laws which stimulate rebellion. Teachings through stories have been very effective in creating moral dilemmas which requires the student to reflect inwardly on questions and settles inner conflict. Moral growth and intellectual growth, according to Kohlberg and Piaget, seem to develop together. Since long-term study on children is limited there is far more research done based on adults learning. However, much research is being done in the psychological field of childhood development.

            Psychologist Jean Piaget, an expert in how children develop, took a slightly different approach in child development. He believed that ethics were not innate and that logic and ethics were formed through social experience. An atmosphere that requires the student to only listen to the lesson and obey is an environment of submission in which cannot nurture autonomy. He states that a child cannot reason according to logic until the age of eleven or twelve and won't be fully developed until age fourteen or fifteen (Hennessy, p. 174, 1979). However, math is also an abstract logical discipline in which children are taught from kindergarten and even earlier. Therefore, the lessons learned in moral philosophy should not be shied away from. Piaget goes on to say that moral development consists of "a system of rules" and the "essence of all morality" is to "acquire these rules" (Hennessy). Through his research he discovered that as early as three years old, children refrain from wrong behavior simply out of the desire to obey the caretaker. However, as the child grows and develops there will be an evolution of their moral character which will not do something wrong because it is in itself wrong and then finally make the transition to not doing wrong deeds because it is against mutual trust with others. Sadly, "only about half of the adult American population fully reaches Piaget's stage of formal operational reasoning and only five percent reach the highest moral stage which demonstrates that natural or universal forms of development are not inevitable but depend on experience". Despite those results, when teachers were given a workshop course, they were tested on Kohlberg's moral stages before and after the classes to provide statistical results as to whether or not moral improvement was made. The teacher's principal moral thought "increased significantly" which means, "the teachers' level of conceptual ability in moral reasoning was positively affected by the workshop" (Hennessy, p. 139, 1979). This shows that it is never too late to develop philosophical and ethical skills and change the next generation towards a culture that is more fluid.

            These fundamental beliefs of what is right or wrong are found in every culture and in every child’s environment. It is only natural that the child adapts to his or her environment and embraces the cultural norms. Whether the choice is to develop a culture of aggression or cooperation will depend on what is accepted and allowed as the norm; it will be what is fed to society. Some groups may claim that individualism and personal achievement will benefit humanity, whereas other groups may claim that teaching cooperation and community involvement is what is needed. When various philosophical theories are taught it offers the individual the opportunity to experience these different cultures; thereby teaching tolerance as well as self-exploration. Therefore, it is possible to “modify and change certain aspects of human character through the control of an individual's experience” (Morris & Pai, 1976). Kohlberg believed that despite our differences, all cultures have similar universal moral issues that can find common ground through philosophic and psychological ways. He stated, "value concepts" only need to be used to "regulate social behavior", whereas, moral concepts develop through having to "get along with other people" (Hersh, p.85, 1979). Since many parents today rely solely on the educational system to instruct their children, it is imperative that part of that education include ethics training; in other words- moral philosophy. John Humphrys, from Today, BBC Radio 4 stated,

"Over the last week or so we've been asking you for ideas about what subjects ought to be taught in schools but are not taught. Now, there have been many suggestions: basic conversation skills, that were one of them; how to change a plug; map-reading, could be useful for some; but the overwhelming winner- you may be surprised by this- was philosophy".

            The need and desire for philosophy to be taught again has inspired some people to fight for the renewal of philosophy to be taught again in schools. Matthew Lipman is considered the father of Philosophy for Children (P4C). In 1974, he began training teachers at the Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children at Monclair State University, so that they could teach philosophy to school children (Hand, 2009). The Institute took two approaches in developing the program. One would be that they used stories to initiate discussions and the other was that the students took on the role of a teacher by choosing the topic for discussion. In this way, the teacher guided the discussions to induce thought rather than instructed the students with demands or personal convictions. The P4C movement has spread to 75 centers in the United States and has included various international programs that fall under the same school of thought (P4C). In England and Scotland there is an estimated 200 secondary schools 2,000 primary schools that include some form or other of the P4C programs. In Brazil, 100,000 students per year are being trained along with thousands of teachers. The skills being taught are not just listening and responding but "dispositions for lifelong learning and participation, such as curiosity, reasonableness and openness to others' perceptions and cultures" (Menon, 2011). One of the numerous international agencies for teaching philosophy to children is called Menon, which offers a plethora of resources for anyone wanting to learn more about the programs.            

            In the process towards creating a curriculum for a diverse American culture, it is essential to gain a collection of theories to form a standard in which educators can turn to for guidance. Thus, the course would be guided by the textbook and preferably instructed by philosophy and/or ethics majors, similar to what is being done now oversees. When teaching moral philosophy, an instructor only needs to turn to the numerous research results that signify moral development is nurtured through discussion groups. The study of ethics will help teachers to instill in students' learning by "(1) heightening moral awareness, (2) developing more adequate moral reasoning, and (3) affecting moral behavior" (Hersh, p.245, 1979). The outcome of moral reasoning is "fairness, concern for others, cooperation, empathy, shared responsibility, mutual obligation, and democratic participation" (Hersh).

            Although it would be naive to think that merely absorbing various theories into the American educational system would solve all of mankind’s problems; it is a start. By beginning a dialogue of the world’s beliefs, children are encouraged to discuss what is secretly questioned, to ask questions that stimulate further pondering, and teach them to communicate differences of opinion which stimulate comprehending the actions of others. The idea that a utopian society could be the future for America is a fantasy. The reason being that no one person is alike and to become a productive member in society learning how to get along with others is essential. Also, despite all that philosophy adds to education, human being will never be completely satisfied with the level of expertise and livelihood that they have achieved since it is human nature to always desire more. Another view is that "moral agency consists of several things, including reason" and also rely on duty towards others, and certain desires and aversions (Audi, p. 249, 1995). Observation and experiences also add to our training in moral development in which helps facilitate the formation of desires and aversions. That is why experience along with education in reason will create a culture that is influenced in ethical decisions; with each generation improving. However, since the study of philosophy and ethics are no longer common knowledge, the wisdom of the ancients is struggling for air to stay alive and our present culture is suffering because of it.
            One of the greatest responsibilities of any generation is to raise the future citizens of the world. It is no longer enough to teach children only one philosophical viewpoint; for students will not be prepared to understand and relate well with others, or at the very least, fathom the enemy. Through comprehension, humans can better relate to each other and to cross- cultural experiences of which is only heard or read about. For parents, it is the ultimate goal to raise law-abiding individuals who not only survive, but flourish. Since it is impossible to be all things for children, it is essential that educators are able to teach such a vital subject to students. A revitalization in teaching philosophy in school will give children the tools to succeed later in life by planting seeds of greatness. This is the ideal for any family or community; to release productive adults into the world on their own free will and entrust that good ethical decisions are made not only in the day-to-day routine but in important business matters for the good of society. In this way, unethical decisions are diminished by a better understanding of cause and effect and the ability to thoroughly think things through. Expecting excellence from this future generation is not something that is for the elite, but is for everyone to work on. Giving all classes of humanity the dignity to make ethical decisions not only raises the intellect, it raises respect for oneself and neighbor. It is not that all individuals must strive to have the top position in society, but rather, that one must strive to be the very best at whatever position that individual is currently in so that by doing so the individual's own capacity is reached. The very reason why ethics can and should be taught to school-age children can be summed up in Abraham Lincoln's comment, "The philosophy of the school room in one generation will be the philosophy of government in the next". 

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